A List of Examples Compiled by
- Kenneth C. Balcomb III
- Copyright 1995
- Center for Whale Research
- Friday Harbor, WA 98250
"Over the years that dolphins have been kept in captivity, some
have been released back into the wild after varying periods of time. During
most of these early dolphin reintroductions, the animals were often taken
from a tank and placed back in the bays close to the facilities. Some of
these were display animals no longer of use to the facility. In all these
cases there was no followup monitoring." (Bassos, 1993).
This document is dedicated to "Keiko", "Junior",
"Tanouk" and "Lolita" , as well as the many smaller
captive cetaceans which have been and are maintained in solitary confinement
and inadequate facilities devoid of significant educational benefit to the
public or conservation benefit to their species. They could be returned
to the benefit of all.
For this preliminary summary, I have included anecdotal reports of releases
of dolphins (including large species such as killer whales) from captivity
by institutions and individuals which have maintained them in many parts
of the world. I have also included a few examples of reintroductions of
stranded cetaceans which provide useful background on followup documentation.
But, it is not the astonishing durability and survival instinct of these
animals in nature that is in question. Currently, a major point of contention
in the issue of release or reinstatement of captive cetaceans is whether
the dolphin or whale will readapt to catching live prey after it has been
fed piecemeal in prolonged captivity. Another point of contention is whether
released animals will spread acquired pathogens to the wild community, or
have sufficient immunity from pathogens in the wild. And, a third point
concerns the question of whether a released cetacean will readapt socially,
or be condemned to a life of loneliness.
These points must be responsibly addressed; but, if post-captive release
is lethal, dangerous and irresponsible, then why has it been done so many
times by organizations that are generally considered responsible?
This is not intended to be an exhaustive list, and any additions or suggestions
the reader can offer will be appreciated. Considering the worldwide, sometimes
illegal and often unregulated trade in these animals, there undoubtedly
have been other releases for institutional and business convenience which
are not included herein. In the interest of proper historical documentation,
I will list only those which have been published or have been reported to
me firsthand by reliable sources. This does not include reports of approximately
20 dolphins that have been rehabilitated from stranding events and released
back to the wild (NMFS records). It will be particularly useful in future
editions of this publication to compile a list of releases of cetaceans
that were examined by qualified veterinarians prior to release, and for
which veterinary records (and/or specimen materials) may be available. This
information, together with similarly compiled information from stranding
events may yield useful epidemiological insights into the question of immunocompetence
and introduction of 'captive acquired pathogens' to wild populations. The
state of the art in telemetry and observational studies can in many cases
reveal whether released animals fare well and are socially reinstated.
In the case of non-native introductions, DNA techniques may now be employed
in studies of the host populations to reveal additional information concerning
the genetic ramifications of non-native releases (eg. in The Bahamas Tursiops
truncatus population; or in operational releases such as done by the U.S.
Navy, other navies, and swim programs).
Whatever one's view on captivity may be, it is in the interest of humanitarian
treatment of those animals which are no longer suitable for display, etc.,
to seriously examine release and reinstatement to the wild as an option
for their retirement. In this respect, the genetic and immunological issues
are important and should be objectively addressed; but, in a very real sense
they represent spilt milk due to the common past practices of institutions
the public has entrusted with the care of marine mammals.
Dolphin (Tursiops sp.) releases
1993. Flipper a male bottlenose dolphin released off Laguna, Brazil
after approximately ten years of captivity (Rollo, 1993). Since release,
Flipper has been seen along at least 155 miles of coastline, often in the
company of other dolphins. His most recent sighting was in early 1995. Returned
to native habitat. One dolphin; Captive 10 years; followup successful.
1992. TT-745 a male bottlenose dolphin captured on 20 July 1988
in Mississippi was inadvertently released by the U.S. Navy on 2 June 1992
at an undisclosed location (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Not
reported whether returned to native habitat. One dolphin; Captive 4 years;
no followup. There should be more information available on this animal through
FOIA request.
1992. TT-682 "Scanner" a male bottlenose dolphin captured
on 08/30/84 was inadvertently released by the U.S. Navy on 1 May 1992 at
an undisclosed location (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Not
reported whether returned to native habitat. Good veterinary records at
first in Hawaii, later in Key West Florida to 4/24/92; ran off with a pod
4/22/92, but apparently was recalled or voluntarily returned; transferred
to Morehead City NC on 4/28/92. Presumably, Scanner went AWOL off North
Carolina. In 1988 this dolphin was reported to have exhibited skin lesions
similar to those observed in east coast strandings; should seek samples.
Dr. Greg Bossart signed veterinary report of 3/17/88 indicating skin dermatitis
of viral etiology. One dolphin; Captive 8 years; no followup.
1992. Bahama Mama an adult female bottlenose dolphin inadvertently
released after at least seventeen years of captivity (Claridge and Balcomb,
1993). No official followup occurred, however this dolphin was positively
photo-identified up to eight months after release in the company of wild
dolphins in the Bahamas. Assumed returned to native habitat. One dolphin;
Captive 17 years; followup successful.
1992. Rajah (male), Nero (male), Frodo (male), Rani (pregnant female),
Echo (juvenile daughter of Rani), Mila (female) and Luka (her calf), Nakita
(juvenile daughter of Mila), Kia (juvenile) nine bottlenose dolphins
in a socially perturbed group released 13 January 1992 off Perth, Australia,
after eleven years of captivity (Gales and Waples, 1993). Rajah, the lone
male, followed the research boat out to sea and within ten minutes had his
first encounter with wild dolphins, two subadults. "Rajah seemed to
have no problem keeping pace with the wild dolphins..." Eleven days
later, he approached the research boat excitedly and followed it back into
the seapen enclosure. He had lost 18 kg (10.8% of his prerelease weight),
which was considered unsatisfactory, and he is now kept permanently in a
large netted enclosure within a marina. Mila was recaptured 28 February,
and she was reported to have lost 23 kg (14.7% of her prerelease body weight),
which was considered unsatisfactory. She also is now kept permanently in
the large netted enclosure. Her calf (Luka) presumably died. One of the
juveniles (Echo) was recaptured one week after release, having lost 10kg
(8.5%) of her prerelease body weight, which was considered unsatisfactory.
She too is now maintained permanently in the large netted enclosure. Frodo
appeared to be in fine condition on 16 February. Nero was seen at sea on
31 January. Several other sightings of these released dolphins (unidentified
as to which ones) have been made as late as September 1992. The authors
report that, "The major reason for the ambiguity of the results was
our inability to effectively track the dolphins whilst they were at sea."
Returned to native habitat. Nine dolphins; Captive 11 years; 3 recaptured,
1 presumably died, 2 followup successful, and 3 no followup.
1992. Matt, an adult male bottlenose dolphin was rehabilitated, freezebranded,
and then released after 37 days at Mote Marine Laboratory's facility (Gorzelany,
1992). Within a matter of minutes he was associating with a mother-calf
pair in the area. At least 12 sightings of Matt have been reported in the
first nine months following release. Returned to native habitat. One dolphin;
Captive 37 days; followup successful.
1992. Annessa, a captive-born Atlantic bottle-nose dolphin held at the
Dolphin Research Center in the Florida Keys, disappeared and was feared
lost during a hurricane in August, 1992. Annessa survived the hurricane,
however, and was adopted by a pod of wild dolphins. She has been sighted
numerous times - healthy an foraging on her own. One dolphin; Captive since
birth; followup successful.
1991. Rocky (male), Missie (female) and Silver (male) three bottlenose
dolphins released off Turks and Caicos Islands, after twenty, twenty-two,
and fifteen years of captivity, respectively (Klinowska and Brown, 1985).
"In the acclimation seapen, they learned how to capture live fish"
(McKenna, 1992). Released September 1991. All have been resighted numerous
times since then, and Silver has been seen as recently as early 1994. In
several of the recent sightings, Silver was in the company of JoJo, a "friendly"
dolphin that swims near Club Med at Providenciales, Turks and Caicos. Rocky
and Missie were captured in the North Atlantic or Gulf of Mexico (probably
off Florida), and Silver was captured off Taiwan in the Pacific. Not returned
to native habitat.
Note: This reintroduction was recently labelled as fraud by marine parks
spokespeople in the United Kingdom, but this author is convinced that it
was conducted responsibly and without intent to deceive. Three dolphins;
Captive 20, 22 and 15 years; followup tentatively successful.
1990. Echo (male) and Misha (male) two adult bottlenose dolphins
released intentionally after two years of research (Wells, 1991; Bassos,
1993), with extensive followup. The dolphins had been captured in 1988 with
the intention of studying aspects of their reintroduction following captivity.
Released on 6 October 1990 off Bishop Harbor, Tampa Bay, Florida in the
vicinity where they had been captured. These two dolphins have been resighted
numerous times (recently March, 1994), and they appear to have successfully
reacclimated to the wild. Released to native habitat. Two dolphins; Captive
2 years; followup successful.
1990. TT-652 "Budro", a male bottlenose dolphin captured 02/24/84
in Mississippi was inadvertently released by the U.S. Navy on 06/04/90 at
an undisclosed location (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). Budro was at Key West, FL
on 5/2/90. No followup reported. Not known if returned to native habitat.
Veterinary records 3/29/90 indicate Budro exhibited anorexia, possible ulcer
which was medicated; and 4/22/90 records indicate "animal well fleshed
and healthy" at that time. One dolphin; Captive 4 years; no followup.
1987. Joe (male) and Rosie (female) two bottlenose dolphins released
off Wassaw Island, Georgia, after seven years of captivity (Coyle and Hickman,
1988). "All reports of their activity in the wild indicate that they
are in good health and have associations with resident pods." Released
July 13, 1987. These dolphins were captured off Mississippi and released
off Georgia. Not returned to native habitat. Two dolphins; Captive 7 years;
followup successful.
Note: Dr. David Bain has suggested that Joe and Rosie may have been the
carriers of disease which ravaged dolphins along east coast in 1987/88,
but on review of the facts that seems improbable. The massive die-off of
dolphins along the east coast began off New Jersey in June 1987 before Joe
and Rosie were released, and it progressed southward along the coast. Strandings
of dolphins did not occur off Georgia until year end. A retrospective analysis
in 1993 indicates the die-off may have been due to a morbillivirus with
environmental contaminants implicated in immune system failure. Phocine
morbillivirus has been detected in New England since 1986 and earlier.
1986. TT-658, "Echo", a female bottlenose dolphin captured
03/30/84 in Mississippi was inadvertently released 07/15/86 by the U.S.
Navy at an undisclosed location (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). On 2/24/86 Echo was
stationed at NOSC, Hawaii. No followup reported. Not known if returned to
native habitat. Veterinary records indicate nothing remarkable in her history.
One dolphin; Captive 2+ years; no followup.
1985. TT-672, a male bottlenose dolphin captured 09/06/84 in Mississippi
was inadvertently released 08/02/85 by the U.S. Navy at an undisclosed location
(NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Not known if returned to native
habitat. Veterinary records indicate NOSC San Diego. One dolphin; Captive
11 months; no followup.
1984. TT-#13, a female bottlenose dolphin captured 03/23/84 in Mississippi
was released by the U.S. Navy ten days later, presumably in the vicinity
of the capture site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed
released to native habitat. One dolphin; Captive 10 days; no followup.
1984. TT-#10, a male bottlenose dolphin captured 02/24/84 in Mississippi
was released by the U.S. Navy twenty days later, presumably in the vicinity
of the capture site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed
released to native habitat. One dolphin; Captive 20 days; no followup.
1984. TT-#11, a female bottlenose dolphin captured 03/03/84 in Mississippi
was released by the U.S. Navy twelve days later, presumably in the vicinity
of the capture site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed
released to native habitat. One dolphin; Captive 12 days; no followup.
1984. Nine bottlenose dolphins released after three months captivity
for the filming of "Cocoon" by Fox Studios off Nassau, Bahamas.
No official followup occurred. Twelve dolphins had reportedly been captured
off Eleuthera, Bahamas (S. Claridge, pers. comm.). One died, two are reportedly
now at UNEXSO, Freeport, Bahamas. Released to native habitat. Nine dolphins;
Captive 3 months; no followup.
1984. TT-#14, a male bottlenose dolphin captured 07/26/84 in Mississippi
was intentionally released 08/14/84 by the U.S. Navy, presumably near the
capture site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed released
to native habitat. One dolphin; Captive 18 days; no followup.
1984. One Atlantic bottlenose dolphin captured 07/03/84 off the Florida
panhandle was released 08/26/84 by the Gulfarium of Fort Walton Beach because
it "would not adapt to captivity." No followup reported. Presumed
native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive 57 days; no followup.
1983. One Atlantic bottlenose dolphin captured 06/22/83 in Mississippi
was released 07/07/83 by the Aquarium of Niagara Falls (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93).
No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive
15 days; no followup.
1983. One Atlantic bottlenose dolphin captured 07/27/83 by Sea World
for Dr. Gerald Kooyman (Scripps Institute of Oceanography) was released
10/01/83, presumably near the capture site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup
reported. Presumed native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive 2 months;
no followup.
1983. Two bottlenose dolphins were released in Mississippi sound approximately
one month after capture by Marine Animal Productions, Inc. (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93).
No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction. Two dolphins; Captive
1 month; no followup.
1983. Two Atlantic bottlenose dolphins were reported in the NMFS MMIR
08/03/93 to have been captured by Sea World and subsequently released. No
followup reported. Presumably native reintroduction. Two dolphins; Captive
2 weeks; no followup.
1982. One Atlantic bottlenose dolphin was reported released in Mississippi
Sound four days after capture by the Dinnes Memorial Veterinary Hospital
in Saugus California (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed
native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive 4 days; no followup.
Note: It is interesting that the MMIR reports 45 bottlenose dolphins
held by Dinnes Memorial Veterinary Hospital suddenly commencing in 1982
and extending until 1991 - 25 died, and the remaining were transferred to
other organizations, eg. The Mirage in Las Vegas, Brookfield Zoo, National
Aquarium in Baltimore, Mystic Aquarium, Marine Animal Productions, and Marineland
Spain. I telephoned the veterinary hospital on 17 August 1994 and was told
by the receptionist that the dolphins they owned were leased to exhibitors
in various states when they were held, and they no longer hold dolphins.
The average time of survival for the dolphins that died in this "rent-a-dolphin"
program was less than three years. Deaths were attributed to such causes
as: chlorine toxicity, palm fronds, oleander poisoning, sting ray spines,
intestinal obstruction, pneumonia, and accidental drowning.
1982. Eight Atlantic bottlenose dolphins were reported in the NMFS MMIR
08/03/93 to have been captured by Sea World, three died within ten days
of capture of pneumonitis, pancreatitis and possible septicemia, and two
dolphins were released. Two dolphins; Captive 9-12 days; no followup.
1982. One Atlantic bottlenose dolphin was released one month after capture
by Marine Animal Productions, Inc. (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported.
Presumed native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive 1 month; no followup.
1981. Eight Atlantic bottlenose dolphins were captured and held at Sea
World of Florida for up to 90 days while they were used in experiments to
monitor the development of freeze-brands. Released in the vicinity of capture
site in Indian River, Florida and followup conducted by Sea World (Odell
& Asper, 1990). Native Reintroduction. Eight dolphins; Captive <90
days; followup successful.
Note: Although not reported by the authors, there were sixteen dolphins
reported in the NMFS MMIR 08/03/93 to have been captured by Sea World in
1981, one of which died during capture, two died subsequently, and two were
sent to the New England Aquarium.
1980. An adult male bottlenose dolphin was rehabilitated from stranding
on Florida coast, and released by Miami Seaquarium after four months captivity.
No followup occurred, but the dolphin was observed joining a large pod of
dolphins after release. Native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive 4 months;
no followup.
1980. Two Atlantic bottlenose dolphins were captured and held at Sea
World of Florida for up to 90 days while they were used in experiments to
monitor the development of freeze-brands. Released in vicinity of capture
site in Indian River, Florida and followup conducted by Sea World (Odell
& Asper, 1990). Two dolphins; Captive <90 days; followup successful.
Note: Although not reported by the authors, there were fifteen dolphins
reported in NMFS MMIR 08/03/93 to have been captured by Sea World in 1980,
of which seven were released up to 90 days later and five others subsequently
died in captivity. Native reintroduction.
1980. One Atlantic bottlenose dolphin captured 07/22/80 at Rockport Texas
by Adriatic Sea World was released 07/31/80 presumably in the vicinity of
the capture site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed native
reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive 9 days; no followup.
1979. Two Pacific bottlenose dolphins (6 yr male, 8 yr female) permitted
ocean access after four years of captivity at Sea Life Park in Hawaii (NMFS
MMIR 08/03/93). The dolphins gradually ventured further from their seapen,
and eventually after four months of ocean access they chose to remain at
sea. No followup occurred, but it was assumed they had reintegrated into
a local pod. Native reintroduction. Two dolphins; Captive 4 years; no followup.
1979. One Atlantic bottlenose dolphin was released 11/05/79 by Marine
Animal Productions Inc. after being held in captivity for one week (NMFS
MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction. One
dolphin; Captive 7 days; no followup.
1979. One Atlantic bottlenose dolphin released after one month captivity
by Marine World Africa USA (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed
native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive 1 month; no followup.
1979. One Atlantic bottlenose dolphin released to Gulf of Mexico after
two months captivity by Marineland Cote D'Azure, France (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93).
No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive
2 months; no followup.
1978/79. Ten Atlantic bottlenose dolphins were captured between 23 August
1978 and 15 February 1979 and held at Sea World of Florida for up to 90
days while they were used in experiments to monitor the development of freeze-brands.
Released at capture site in Indian River, Florida and followup monitoring
was conducted by Sea World (Odell & Asper, 1990). Native reintroduction.
Ten dolphins; Captive <90 days; followup successful.
Note: Although not reported by the authors, three dolphins reported in
NMFS MMIR 08/03/93 for this period died during or after capture.
1978. TT-#08, a female bottlenose dolphin captured 04/04/78 in Mississippi
was released by the U.S. Navy the next day, presumable in the vicinity of
the capture site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed native
reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive 1 day; no followup.
1978. Four Atlantic bottlenose dolphins were captured by Sea World and
released up to two months later, presumably in the vicinity of the capture
site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Assumed native reintroduction.
Four dolphins; Captive 2 months; no followup.
1978. One Pacific bottlenose dolphin was captured by Sea World and released
ten days later, presumably in the vicinity of the capture site (NMFS MMIR
08/03/93). No followup reported. Assumed native reintroduction. One dolphin;
Captive 10 days; no followup.
1978. One Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Leo Tg-558M) was captured for the
US Navy on 20 January 1977 off Catalina Island, California and escaped 15
January 1978 off Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii where it "joined an indigenous
herd (confirmed)." One dolphin; Captive one year; followup apparently
successful.
1977. TT-#07, a female bottlenose dolphin captured 08/19/77 in Florida
was released five days later by the U.S. Navy, presumably in the vicinity
of the capture site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Assumed
native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive 5 days; no followup.
1977. Two female Atlantic bottlenose dolphins used for research project
by Dr. Lou Herman in Hawaii were illegally released off Oahu, Hawaii after
more than five years of captivity (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup occurred.
Non-native reintroduction. Two dolphins; Captive 5 years; no followup.
Note: DNA studies of the Hawaiian Pacific host population may reveal
useful information concerning the success or failure of this release.
1977. Seven Atlantic bottlenose dolphins were captured by Sea World and
released up to three months later, presumably in the vicinity of the capture
site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction.
Seven dolphins; Captive <90 days; no followup.
1975. TT-495, a male bottlenose dolphin captured 07/11/74 in Mississippi
was inadvertently released by the U.S. Navy 10/10/75 at an undisclosed location
(NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Unknown reintroduction. One
dolphin; Captive 15 months; no followup.
1975. TT-499, a male bottlenose dolphin captured 07/13/74 in Mississippi
was inadvertently released by the U.S. Navy 08/25/75 at an undisclosed location
(NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Unknown reintroduction. One
dolphin; Captive 13 months; no followup.
1975. One Atlantic bottlenose dolphin captured 05/10/75 in Mississippi
by Marine Animal Productions Inc. was released 05/23/75, and another captured
10/19/75 was released 11/05/75 because they were " not adapting."
(NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction.
One dolphin; Captive 13-16 days; no followup.
1974. TT-#02, a male bottlenose dolphin captured 07/09/74 in Mississippi
was released by the U.S. Navy six days later, presumably in the vicinity
of the capture site (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). Three additional dolphins captured
the same day were also released. No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction.
Four dolphins; Captive 6 days; no followup.
1974. Liberty and Florida two bottlenose dolphins released off
Eleuthera in the Bahamas after two years of captivity. Prior to release,
the dolphins were readapted to feeding on live fish, freeze branded, and
airlifted to the Bahamas for release. One of these may now (1994) be the
dolphin known as JoJo off Turks and Caicos. (McKenna, 1992). Non-native
reintroduction. Two dolphins; Captive 2 years; no followup.
1974. Six bottlenose dolphins released after one and a half years in
captivity for the filming of "Day of the Dolphin" off Marsh Harbour,
Abaco Bahamas. No official followup occurred, however local residents reported
seeing some of these distinctively marked individuals up to two years later.
The dolphins had been captured off Key Largo, Florida and released in the
Bahamas (Dr. Jesse White, pers. comm.). Non-native reintroduction.
Note: DNA techniques could determine whether there was any genetic influence
by this reintroduction. Six dolphins; Captive 18 months; followup?
1972. Gussie (male) an adult bottlenose dolphin released in Biscayne
Bay, Florida after two years of captivity at Miami Seaquarium. Reintroduction
because of unsuitability for training. No followup occurred. Native reintroduction.
One dolphin; Captive 2 years; no followup.
1972. Opo (female) a bottlenose dolphin returned to original capture
site in Biscayne Bay, Florida after one year of captivity at Miami Seaquarium.
No followup occurred, but the dolphin had readapted to diet of live fish
and was allowed to swim away. Native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive
1 year; no followup.
1972. Two bottlenose dolphins used for behavioral studies at Mote Marine
Laboratory were marked and released after less than one year in captivity
(Irvine and Wells, 1972). No followup occurred. Native reintroduction. Two
dolphins; Captive <1 year; no followup.
1970. Adult female bottlenose "diseased" dolphin released in
Biscayne Bay following stillbirth after unreported number of years in captivity
at Miami Seaquarium (Dr. Jesse White, pers. comm.). No followup occurred,
but dolphin was observed swimming in Biscayne Bay following release. Native
reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive ? ;no followup.
1970's? "A single mature male dolphin was released from an Aquarium
at Port Elizabeth Museum in South Africa and although no specific effort
was made to track the animal he was sighted on several occasions post release
(G.Ross, Pers. comm.)" Ref. Gales and Waples, 1993. One dolphin; Captive
? years; no followup.
1967. Three or four dolphins released off Key Biscayne, Florida by Dr.
John Lilly after several years of communications experiments. Reference
personal communication from Rosi Løvdal, who had seen the dolphins
numerous times while Dr. Lilly was conducting experiments, and whose son
(Scott Kurth) was present at the release. Rosi reportedly observed one of
the released animals off West Andros in 1973, and identified it by a distinctive
notch on the top leading edge of the dorsal fin. She also reports that the
dolphin appeared to have recognized her, as well. Native reintroduction.
Three or Four dolphins; Captive ? years; followup ?
1966. Dal (male) and Suwa (female) two bottlenose dolphins released
in Florida to open lagoon after two to four years of captivity, and fed
by human caretaker for more than twenty years. Dal died of natural causes
in 1986, and Suwa injured a young male swimmer in ocean in 1987, and was
subsequently no longer allowed out of lagoon. Pet relationship, not complete
reintroduction.
1964. Pedro an adult male bottlenose dolphin released by Miami
Seaquarium after approximately ten years of captivity. No official followup
occurred, but the dolphin was observed swimming in Biscayne Bay following
release. Native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive 10 years; no followup.
1960's. Dolly (female) Atlantic bottlenose dolphin released by
US Navy near Key West, Florida following unreported length of time in captivity
(Lockyer, 1990). No followup occurred, but this dolphin was reported for
many years to be sociable with people in the Florida Keys. Assumed Native
reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive ? years; no followup.
1960's or 1970's. Dee-Dee an Atlantic bottlenose dolphin released
by Hugh Downs following unreported length of time in captivity (Miami News
Weekender, May 16, 1987). Dr. Henry Truby (Professor of Pediatrics, University
of Miami) reported, "We released a number of dolphins with no problems."...
"We kept trying to release Hugh Down's dolphin and he'd come back home
like a boomerang. He'd be waiting for us at the dock." Assumed Native
reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive ? years; no followup.
Dolphin (Lagenorhynchus sp.) releases
1991. On 15 February, a 161-kg male Atlantic white-sided dolphin stranded
on Lieutenant Island, Wellfleet, Massachusetts and was transported by New
England Aquarium staff to Mystic Marineland Aquarium. After eight months
of rehabilitation the animal was fitted with a satellite-monitored Argos
radio transmitter and released off Stellwagen Bank in the Gulf of Maine.
Transmission continued for six days with normal dive patterns, until the
tag was apparently dislodged during a storm. (Mate, et al., 1994) One dolphin;
Captive 8 months; followup successful.
1979. South of Montauk Point Long Island, NY, a white-sided dolphin was
released with spaghetti tag. Reportedly seen one month later swimming with
alarge group of lags. (pers. comm, J. Lawrence Dunn). One dolphin; Captive
?; followup successful.
Killer Whale (Orcinus orca) releases
Pacific Northwest Reintroductions. Although no official followup on reintroductions
occurred, photo-identification studies which commenced in the early and
mid 1970's in British Columbia and Washington State have documented the
recovery and social structure of virtually all of the pods which were exploited
for public display. We list reintroductions following capture events to
elucidate potential social effects of perturbation, which were unknown and
unconsidered at the time of capture. In all of the following cases, the
sub-sequent independent followup by the Center for Whale Research indicates
that the reintroductions can be considered successful, and have been verified
by the author, except as otherwise cited.
1976. S and O pods, numbering 7 whales, were captured in Puget Sound
and held temporarily while two whales (O-4, O-5) were selected for a Sea
World and University of Washington radio tag research project. The unselected
whales were released after one week to reintegrate back into the transient
community. The two selected whales were maintained in captivity for 55 days
before being released to reintegrate back into the transient community (Erickson,
1977). They have been independently photodocumented almost every year since
release and are still alive 19 years post-release. Native reintroduction.
Note: Transient whales range over thousands of miles and could potentially
have great difficulty relocating their podmates following reintroduction;
nonetheless these two certainly did reintegrate into their social community.
Seven whales; Captive 7-55 days; followup successful.
1975. Q pod, numbering six whales, was captured off southern Vancouver
Island and held temporarily while a young female and a young male were removed
for public display. The unselected whales were released to reintegrate back
into the transient community. Photodocumented numerous times since release.
Native reintroduction. Four whales; Captive ?; followup successful.
1973. Unknown pod (presumably southern resident) was captured in Washington
State and held temporarily while one mature female was removed for public
display. Native reintroduction. ???
1973. K pod, numbering approximately 17 whales, was captured off South
Vancouver Island and held temporarily while one mature female was removed
for public display. An adult male (K-1) was retained for two months before
being released to reintegrate into his pod. Native reintroduction. Sixteen
whales; Captive ? to 60 days; followup successful.
Note: K-1, alias Taku, is a prominent member of K pod, and is now approximately
39 years old, based upon his state of maturity in 1973.
1973. L pod, numbering approximately 39 whales, was captured off South
Vancouver Island and held temporarily while a mature male and a mature female
were removed for public display. The unselected whales were released to
reintegrate back into the local community. Native reintroduction. Thirty-seven
whales: Captive ?; followup successful.
1972. J pod, numbering approximately 15 whales, was captured in Puget
Sound and held temporarily while one young male was removed for public display.
The unselected whales were released to reintegrate back into the local community.
Native reintroduction. Fourteen whales; Captive ?; followup successful.
1971. L pod, numbering approximately 45 whales, was captured in Possession
Sound and held temporarily while two young females and a young male were
removed for public display. The unselected whales were released to reintegrate
back into the local community. Native reintroduction. Forty-three whales;
Captive ?; followup successful.
1971. Unknown pod (presumably southern resident) of whales was captured
and held in Washington State while two young males were removed for public
display. Native reintroduction. ???
1971. Ishmael, a young male killer whale from J or K pod was inducted
into the US Navy Project Deep Ops in 1968, but escaped from his handlers
off the north coast of Oahu, Hawaii in February 1971 (Bowers and Henderson,
1972). No followup due to radio tag failure. Non-native reintroduction.
One whale; Captive 28 months; no followup.
Note: If DNA studies were conducted on killer whales in Hawaiian or Central
Pacific waters, it is possible that some genetic influence of Ishmael's
reintroduction might be detected. It is also possible that Ishmael may yet
be found by photo-identification studies.
1970. M pod, numbering three whales, was captured off southern Vancouver
Island and held temporarily. One young female whale (Chimo) was removed
for public display, and the other two (M1, M2) were maintained in a seapen
at Pedder Bay, BC. These two whales "escaped" the seapen after
eight months captivity and reintegrated back into the transient whale community
(Hoyt, 1990). They have been photodocumented almost every year since. Native
reintroduction. Two whales; Captive 8 months; followup successful.
1970. J, K, and L pods, numbering approximately 85 whales (contemporary
news said 50 whales, but number was higher), were captured in Possession
Sound and held temporarily while twelve whales were removed for public display
(or by accidental drowning). The unselected surviving whales were released
to reintegrate back into the local community. Native reintroduction. Thirty-eight
to seventy-three whales; Captive 13 days; followup successful.
Note: The only surviving captive whale from this event now resides in
solitary confinement at Miami Seaquarium. She is a J, K, or L pod female
now approximately 31 years of age. DNA and communications research proposals
to enrich her environment and examine the strength of social bonds over
the long term have been presented to Miami Seaquarium.
1969. A5 pod, numbering approximately sixteen whales, was captured in
Pender Harbor Vancouver Island and held temporarily while six whales were
removed for public display (Hoyt, 1990). The unselected whales were released
to reintegrate back into the local community. Native reintroduction. Ten
whales; Captive ?; followup successful.
Note: Only two whales survive in captivity from this capture event: Corky
at Sea World, San Diego, and Yaka at Marine World Africa USA in Vallejo,
CA. Neither facility has allowed communications experiments between their
captive and wild whales for environmental enrichment or to examine the strength
of social bonds over the long term. "Prime Time Live" surprised
Sea World officials by playing an audio tape of A5 pod at Corky's tank.
This impromptu experiment aired in August, 1993. Corky visibly shuddered
as she heard her family's voices. Yaka was involved in a study reported
in 1993 in which, "Results of this study demonstrate that captive killer
whales will pursue, capture and eat live fish. The whales in this study
used echolocation while in pursuit of fish, as well as at other times."
(Newman and Markowitz, 1993).
1969. A male killer whale from A5 pod released after one year captivity
in pen in Pender Harbor since 1968 capture. No details available. Native
reintroduction. One whale; Captive 1 year; followup ?
1968. J and L pods, numbering approximately 65 whales, were captured
in Puget Sound and held temporarily while five whales were removed for public
display or military purposes (US Navy). The unselected whales were released
to reintegrate back into the local community. Native reintroduction. Sixty
whales; Captive ?; followup successful.
Note: See Ishmael, 1971 reintroduction.
1968. A5 pod, numbering approximately 18 whales, was captured off northern
Vancouver Island and held temporarily while six whales were removed for
public display. The unselected whales were released to reintegrate back
into the local community. Native reintroduction. Twelve whales; Captive
?; followup successful.
1967. K pod, numbering approximately 25 whales, was captured in Puget
Sound and held temporarily while eight whales were removed for public display.
The unselected whales were released to reintegrate back into the local community.
Native reintroduction. Seventeen whales; Captive ?; followup successful.
Icelandic killer whale reintroductions. As in the Pacific Northwest,
no official followup studies have been conducted to ascertain whether there
was successful reintegration of any of the released animals. In contrast
to the Pacific Northwest, there are no independent followup or photoidentification
studies either. It is clear, however, that killer whales have been released
back into the Icelandic population after periods of captivity (Dudok van
Heel, 1986; Sigurjonsson, 1988), and there is no evidence that they have
not been reaccepted and fared as well as has been reported for Pacific Northwest
animals. At least one Icelandic reintroduction after captivity of several
months duration was considered by world experts as the best option for survival
for the reintroduced animals. The following records are the only ones we
know about:
1981. Seven killer whales captured and one released shortly after being
captured to reintegrate back into the wild community. One whale; Captive
?; no followup.
1980. Six killer whales captured and one released shortly after being
captured to reintegrate back into the wild community. One whale; Captive
?; no followup.
1978. Eleven killer whales captured and three released after being kept
in a holding pool for several months, during which time they developed frostbite
and skin infections. Two other killer whales died in this holding pool before
shipment from Iceland. Three whales; Captive ? months; no followup.
1976. Six killer whales captured, one released shortly after being captured
and two released after being kept in a floating pen. Three whales; Captive
?; no followup.
Other successful whale reintroductions
Most other cetacean reintroductions have been conducted following rehabilitation
from stranding events or release from captivity due to health/behavior problems.
The followup for such reintroductions has generally been brief or non-existent,
but there are a few notable exceptions:
1972. Gray whale (Eschrictius robustus). A baby gray whale (Gigi) was
captured in early March of 1971 during an expedition sponsored by Sea World,
Inc. This whale was maintained in captivity for one year at Sea World, San
Diego before being instrumented with a radio tag and released on 13 March
1972, during the gray whale northerly migration. The reintroduction was
considered a success, but official followup was discontinued in May 1972
when the radio tag failed (Evans, 1974). There were several confirmed sightings
of this whale after radio tag failure, one of which was two years later
reporting the square white scar intentionally placed for identification.
One whale; Captive 1 year; followup successful.
1985. Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). "Humphrey",
the famous wrong way whale which swam up the Sacramento River, CA in November
1985 was escorted back to sea following a 24 day ordeal ending in a freshwater
slough. He stranded several times, and appeared close to death on more than
one occasion, but he nonetheless survived his ordeal and was documented
by photo-identification studies numerous times for the three following years
(Calambokidis, et. al., 1989). While not an actual reintroduction from captivity,
Humphrey provides a remarkable example of survival resilience in these animals.
One whale; 'Captive' 24 days; followup successful.
Pilot whale (Globicephala melaena). Following rehabilitation from stranding
events, pilot whales have been reintroduced to the ocean environment on
numerous occasions throughout the world (Robson, 1984 lists six successful
pod rescues around Australia and New Zealand). Rarely, has there been any
followup. We cite a couple of examples where there has been followup, and
would appreciate learning of any others.
1991. Two pilot whales were rehabilitated by the Miami Seaquarium from
a stranding which occurred on the Florida coast in 1991. They were satellite
tagged by Dr. Bruce Mate and released in the vicinity where they had stranded.
These two whales were resighted off the coast of Florida in February 1994
by the US Coast Guard, and their tag harnesses were still attached, although
the batteries had died. (Mate, pers. comm. 1994). Two whales; Captive ?;
followup successful.
1987. Three pilot whales were rehabilitated at the New England Aquarium
in Boston, MA from a stranding which occurred on Cape Cod in December, 1986.
They were released at sea off Cape Cod on June 29, 1987. One whale was fitted
with a Telonics-built Argos transmitter (satellite tag), and one was fitted
with a conventional radio tag. "The satellite-monitored whale was tracked
by Argos for 95 days, as the whale swam at least 7,600 kilometers. Just
three weeks after tagging, this Argos-equipped whale was spotted in a group
of more than 100 pilot whales, suggesting that its movements and dive patterns
were typical of normal pilot whales." (Mate, 1989). Three whales; Captive
6 months; followup successful.
1967. Pilot whale (Globicephala melaena). After almost eight years of
captivity at Marineland of the Pacific, a twenty year old pilot whale named
Bimbo was successfully reintroduced to the wild. Captured in January/February,
1960 at a length of 17' 6", he performed well for about three years.
When his female pilot whale and dolphin companions died, Bimbo's behavior
changed drastically. "One day he would be as friendly as ever, the
next in a wildly agitated state or apathetic and apparently depressed"
(Valentry, 1969). It was decided to keep him as an attraction whether or
not he performed. After four years of treatment including antidepressant
drugs and tranquilizers, Bimbo smashed into a window, flooding spectators.
He was released in August, 1967 at a length of 20' 6", "...after
much planning and weeks of isolation in a tank for physical tests to make
sure he was fit for fending on his own at sea" (op. cit.). He was resighted
in 1969 near Santa Barbara, CA by a U.S. Navy collector, and again in 1974
near San Clemente identified from photographs by L Cornell and J. Prescott
(pers. comm., John Prescott.) One whale; Captive 7.5 years; followup successful.
Other cetacean species reintroductions with no followup.
1988. Two harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) released 11/16/88 after
eight months of captivity by Zeedierenpark Harderwijk (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93).
No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction. No followup reported.
Presumed native reintroduction. Two porpoises; Captive 8 months; no followup.
1984. One Atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus) was released
on 04/11/84 after four months of captivity/rehabilitation by Mystic Marinelife
Aquarium (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction.
One dolphin; Captive 4 months; no followup.
1983. One spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris) was released on 06/07/83
by Sea Life Park, Hawaii after seven years of captivity (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93).
No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive
7 years; no followup.
1983. One common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) was released 09/09/83 by
Marineland of New Zealand after three weeks of captivity (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93).
No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction. One Dolphin; Captive
21 days; no followup.
1980. One Dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus) was released 01/14/80
by Marineland of New Zealand after an unreported length of captivity (NMFS
MMIR 08/03/93). No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction. One
dolphin; Captive ?; no followup.
1978. Mr. A.H. Cobreros of Bahia Blanca Argentina held two Commerson's
dolphins (Cephalorhynchus commersonii) in a pond for 48 days before releasing
them back to the wild (Goodal, et. al., 1988). No followup reported. Presumed
native reintroduction. Two dolphins; Captive 48 days; no followup.
1974. Two rough-toothed dolphins (Steno bredanensis) were captured by
Sea Life Park, Hawaii and released six days later (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93).
No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction. Two dolphins; Captive
6 days; no followup.
1972. One spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris) was released 08/17/72
by Sea Life Park, Hawaii after twenty months of captivity (NMFS MMIR 08/03/93).
No followup reported. Presumed native reintroduction. One dolphin; Captive
20 months; no followup.
Other short-term reintroduction opportunities for cetaceans which currently
may provide information on epidemiological and genetic effects of reintroduction.
UNEXSO, a swim with the dolphin facility in Freeport, Grand Bahama routinely
allows several of its dolphins (some imported from Mexico) to escort boats
and divers to the open ocean, and some dolphins are reported to remain at
sea for several days (mingling and mating with wild dolphins) before returning
to their facility. It would appear that this operation could offer opportunities
to study both epidemiological and genetic effects of non-native reintroductions
of bottlenose dolphins.
For military operations, including exercises, there have been many cetacean
reintroductions conducted worldwide, some temporary and some permanent,
which have not been adequately documented in the public or scientific record.
The circumstance of removal from the wild has also generally not been available
to the public or to the scientific community. At some point in time, the
facts about these removals, introductions and releases, transfers and all
of the information on epidemiology, genetics, physiology, husbandry, training,
and abilities of these animals should be made available to science and the
tax-paying public. Such information is potentially available from Cuba,
The United States, and the former Soviet Union, at least. We would appreciate
learning of any contact persons who may be able to guide us to sources of
some of this information.
We have requested (08/07/94) intentional or inadvertent dolphin release
information from the Navy under the authority of the Freedom of Information
Act, and have been advised by the Office of the General Counsel, Department
of the Navy (20/07/94) - "To date no Department of the Navy marine
mammals have in fact been released to the wild. Therefore, the Department
of the Navy and the Naval Command, Control and Ocean Surveillance Center,
Research Development Test and Evaluation Division (NCCOSC RDT&E DIV)
has no documentation requested." We pointed out the discrepancy of
this response with the MMIR's, and in a followup letter from the Office
of the General Counsel (24/08/94) a list of nine inadvertent dolphin releases
was provided, indicating that none of the releases were native: six dolphins
from Mississippi were inadvertently released in the Pacific, one Mississippi
dolphin escaped in North Carolina, and another in Florida. Perhaps the most
interesting release from a documentation standpoint was that of Leo (Tg-558M),
who was caught 20 January 1977 at Catalina Island off California, and escaped
15 January 1978 at Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii, where he "joined an indigenous
herd (confirmed)."
"The Navy has been training most of its marine mammals free, in
the open ocean, daily, for over 25 years. There are no records on the release
of these animals as the Navy has never considered this practice to be a
release/return to the wild. There are no veterinary medical records correlated
to the daily working of these animals in the open ocean." Given that
these are publicly owned animals, and that it is standard procedure to maintain
detailed husbandry records for them, we suggest that germane veterinary
medical records may available for them, whether or not they are correlated
with daily working in the open ocean.
Considerations for future releases and research on reintroductions.
"Zoos and aquaria play an important role in species conservation
and propagation. As wild populations dwindle, it often falls on captive
breeding programs not only to maintain captive populations, but to reintroduce
individuals to the wild. For marine mammals, successful captive breeding
has been well documented with births reported in 16 species, including cetaceans,
pinnipeds, sea otters, and manatees." (Duffield, 1990.)
When will we seriously examine the issue of research on cetacean reintroductions
to the wild in order to allow zoos and aquaria to play their important role?
To date, it seems unlikely to occur in the private sector, so long as public
interest in release, reintroduction or reinstatement to the wild, per se
is considered an anathema to the business of maintaining marine mammals
for entertainment purposes. Even so, rehabilitation, reintroduction or release
and adequate followup should theoretically not be a problem in the public
sector. Of all the dolphins released intentionally or unintentionally by
the Navy (n=24, including 12 long-term captives), none have reported any
followup, although we think this deserves further examination. Of all the
dolphins released by the public display industry (n=72), all of those which
reported followup (29) were successful except for three which were recaptured
and returned to captivity (that release "experiment" was sponsored
by a marine park going out of business).
In many cases where followup occurred for public display animals released,
and in all cases where followup was successful, it was done by persons independent
of and unsponsored by the public display industry. Sixty percent of the
dolphins released by the public display industry had no followup whatsoever!
By what objective criteria can anyone say that release is cruel and likely
to result in the dolphins' death? Who is responsible for that?
There already are surplus marine mammals of some species in captivity,
for example Tursiops truncatus in several US public display facilities,
and almost the entire US Navy inventory of marine mammals whose maintenance
budget is $5.5 million per year. There will predictably be more surplus
animals in the future. The US Congress (Congressional Record-House, 18 November
1991, p. 10460) made a request to the US Navy to "...develop training
procedures which will allow [marine] mammals which are no longer required
for this project [US Navy] to be released back into their natural habitat.
The conferees prohibit the release of these mammals to any alternative captive
environment. The conferees further direct the Navy to budget in future years
the funds necessary to adequately care for mammals in the Navy inventory
and to adapt the mammals which are no longer required for Navy projects
for release into the World's oceans." Congress then gave the Navy $500,000
to heed their request.
Perhaps it is incumbent upon the Navy to study this problem with us.
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